To understand the spiritual, social, and political significance of Islam, it is necessary to first trace the story of Muhammad’s life. There, the religion of Islam had its roots, and began to blossom into a faith marked by a passionate devotion to Allah.

Muhammad’s Early Life

The prophet Muhammad was born in 570 ce, in the city of Mecca, located in today’s Saudi Arabia. Although Muhammad was a member of the wealthy tribe called the Quraysh, his family was quite poor. Both of Muhammad’s parents died while he was very young, and so he remained under the protection of an uncle and worked for a wealthy widow, Khadija. Muhammad led a rather normal early life, marrying Khadija at twenty-five and having several children—although all of his sons died. However, tradition does note that even as a child, Muhammad was exceptionally spiritual and even may have had supernatural experiences.

For many years, Muhammad was faithful to local Arabic religious practices. He would, for instance, retreat into the desert during Ramadan—the time of the year when fasting would occur in remembrance of the poor and in honor of the local gods. But in the year 610, his usual routine was changed forever. According to Muslim history, the Angel Gabriel—who is also recognized by the Jewish and Christian faiths—appeared to Muhammad and began revealing the Qur’an (pronounced kuh-rahn') to him. This work was to become the sacred word of God for the Muslims.

At first, Muhammad kept the revelations to himself and his immediate family. Within a few years, however, he began to preach about Allah as the one Creator, and began to warn listeners about a future judgment day. Thus, the seeds of Islam were first sown.

The Development and Growth of Islam

Muhammad’s doctrine of one God was contrary to the local religion. Therefore, his teachings angered many Arab traditionalists. Muhammad talked of equal rights. He taught that the Arabs now had a mission from Allah to form an ideal community in which all people would be treated with respect and value—the rich, the poor, male, and female. This enraged those listeners who were happy with their personal economic progress. Meanwhile, Muhammad’s wife and uncle died, and he lost the protection of his immediate relatives. Furthermore, his enemies grew in number, and eventually, Muhammad and his faithful followers had to escape from Mecca. Fortunately, a city to the north—then called Yathrib, but later renamed Medina, meaning “the city of the Prophet”—had invited Muhammad to make his home there. The year of Muhammad’s escape to Medina and the start of his formal community there is called the Hijrah or Hegira, and marks the first year of the Islamic calendar. Therefore, it also signifies the formal beginning of the religion known as Islam.

Muhammad united the warring tribes in the city that welcomed him, and thus gained power over many aspects of the people’s lives—religion, politics, economics, and social dynamics. He continued to fight enemies, such as local Jewish tribes who sided with Mecca, and threatening opponents in Mecca itself. Although Muhammad’s followers were, at first, not large in number, they enjoyed victory in the majority of their battles. Eventually, Muhammad and his troops gained access to the Ka’ba (or Kaaba), Mecca’s ancient temple dedicated to pagan idols, and turned its former fasting rituals into service toward Allah. Within just two years after the taking of the temple, the city of Mecca decided to yield to Muhammad’s growing influence. As a result, Muhammad formally took Mecca without a battle. He cleansed the Ka’ba, and it became the primary site of Muslim pilgrimages—and remains so to this day. He even traced the original establishment of the Ka’ba back to Abraham—the first of the Hebrew patriarchs—whom he considered one of the great prophets of God. In fact, Muhammad understood himself to be only one of a long line of prophets, but significantly, the last prophet that God would send.

Why would God send yet another prophet? After all, Moses had given the Torah to God’s people, while David gave them the Book of Psalms, and Jesus revealed the Gospels. According to Muhammad, these were all valid sacred texts originating from the same God. However, he taught that the authentic message brought by the other prophets had been distorted over the years—tainted by human interference. The Qur’an, once and for all, would offer the true message and record it accurately so that it would be preserved forever. The Qur’an would reveal a lifestyle code that would show the Arab people how to please Allah and how to attain a heavenly afterlife.

The community that Muhammad maintained was known as the umma(h) . Its members followed Muhammad’s code of law, called shari’a, which he formed from his revelations. Muhammad became a leader of the Muslim people in every way. He could rightfully be called a political and military leader, a warrior, an economic leader, and a social reformer. He waged war against powerful nonbelievers. He collected taxes from Muslims, and even offered protection for non-Muslim people who would contribute to his community. He led raiding expeditions, which were, at that time, a common Arabian practice when a tribe needed sustenance. And he expressed firm opinions on issues ranging from marriage, to children, to slavery, to inheritances.

Of course, in addition to being a strong political leader, Muhammad was a holy messenger. He continued to receive Allah’s words in dramatic revelations. And in accordance with Allah’s words, he created a religion that required very specific behaviors of its followers. These can be summarized in the Five Pillars of Islam. The first pillar is to proclaim the Shahada,. This prayer confirms the oneness of Allah and the position of Muhammad as Allah’s holy prophet. The second pillar is to perform ritual prayer—salat—five times daily. The next three pillars involve obligations for giving alms, fasting, and making a pilgrimage to Mecca. Orthodox Muslims add a sixth pillar—to spread the faith of Islam worldwide.

Muhammad did not claim divinity, or even supernatural powers. He was simply God’s messenger to the Arab people and was, therefore, a servant to Allah. But legends grew around him, declaring Muhammad holy. Even today, many Muslims believe that the recitation of Muhammad’s name has a blessing effect on them. They view Muhammad as a great saint who can intercede on their behalf. Some legends even report that Muhammad possessed supernatural powers since childhood, and that he ascended into heaven in a glorious display.

Islam Today

Muhammad died in 632 ce. His position as the leader of Islam would be passed on, but not without eventual disagreements concerning legitimate successors. These disagreements led to splits among the Muslim people. And then there were simply cultural developments that yielded various sects of popular Islam.

Today, there are many Muslim groups throughout the world, and each has developed its own form of Islam. Presently, the most well-known Muslim groups are the Sunni, Shi’ite, Sufi, Ahmadiyya, and Nation of Islam. Many Americans are aware of the strong presence of the Nation of Islam in the United States. It is especially popular within the African-American culture. Each Muslim sect follows a different leader, has its own interpretation of the Qur’an, and also has its own version of the legal code. For example, according to orthodox Islam, Muhammad was the last prophet. Therefore, orthodox communities do not recognize sects that claim modern-day prophets. The Ahmadiyya and the Nation of Islam are examples of such sects. However, all of Islam’s groups share certain common elements. All Muslims observe the Five Pillars of Islam; share deep reverence for a God who is master over all creation; recognize the Qur’an as Allah’s revealed word; and believe that obedience to Allah is critical to gaining Paradise.

THE CONCEPT OF GOD

It is important to note that the Arabic word for God—Allah—cannot be assigned gender. In addition, it is not capable of being pluralized. This confirms that the Muslim God is not subject to human attributes, and that God is one and absolute. Muhammad, the great prophet of Islam, did not consider himself to be revealing a new god to the world, but, instead, revealing the God of monotheism to the Arab people. Muhammad did not stray much from the teachings of the ancient Jewish prophets, nor from those of Jesus Christ, when it came to doctrines of the oneness of God, to sin and atonement, and to reward for righteousness.

Allah is one, eternal, and omnipotent. The Arabic term for this oneness is tawhid. Allah knows everything, observes everything, and is the creator of everything. The Muslim strives to be constantly aware of this presence. The very center of Islam is submission to Allah. So a Muslim’s goal is to become an abd Allah—a servant or laborer of Allah. In doing so, he will fulfill his determined role on earth and attain peace.

The Muslim understands Allah to be merciful to those who are obedient to His will, and a harsh but righteous judge of those who aren’t. He forgives the sorrowful and submissive; to them, He is beneficent and generous. But Allah expects those who have received many gifts to share with others. This is partly why Allah asked Muhammad to reveal the rules for a better society to the Arabs—because mercantilism had triggered greed, and therefore extremes of wealth, that hadn't been a problem among Arabs previously. The Qur’an, in the thirtieth chapter, verse 38, states, “Give to kin, to the poor and the traveler what they need; that is best for those who seek the face of God.”

Interestingly, in the Qur’an, Allah refers to Himself using the pronoun “we.” That pronoun seems to imply that Allah is all-encompassing. But Allah is not to be looked for in nature or in others. He is removed from His creations.

Although Allah cannot be found in human beings or in other facets of nature, there are ninety-nine names of Allah that identify His characteristics. However, while these names can be useful in meditative prayer, the Muslim recognizes that they are simply superficial ways to grasp something ungraspable. If it helps at the time, that’s fine. But in the orthodox understanding of Islam, no human truly develops a personal relationship with Allah. This God exists far above His creations, judging, but also leading, humankind.

Allah is never called “Father.” In Muslim Devotions: A Study of Prayer-Manuals in Common Use, Constance E. Padwick states that Islam is “a religion in which the tenderer couplet father-child is excluded from worship.” Traditional Muslim ways do not assign poetic descriptions to Allah. However, great emphasis is placed on Allah’s position as the Creator. Islam teaches that the world is Allah’s, and therefore Allah has supreme rule over it. Allah is the master of the universe; humans are Allah’s servants. This dynamic is understood quite literally. Because Allah has given human beings the highest place of all creatures, humans carry the responsibility of caring for the earth. They are also intelligent enough to be accountable for their actions. Thus, the Muslim submits by free will, with confidence and desire. In fact, the term Islam signifies not only submission, but submission borne out of one’s own will.

Under the tenets of Islam, humans are not born with inherited sin. However, humans are weak, and they sin out of that weakness. To make up for their offenses, Muslims should perform good acts; should proclaim the Shahada, which is the formal profession of faith; and should otherwise practice the Five Pillars of Islam. Such observances teach the Muslim to rely on Allah, and therefore gain His forgiveness.

Muslims believe that those who obtain Allah’s forgiveness will enjoy a most pleasant afterlife. Allah allows only Muslims to enjoy Paradise in the afterlife, where spiritual and physical ecstasies are constant. For the grave sinner, hell is a burning, putrid punishment. Yet most Muslims believe that if a spirit is sent to hell for sin, the banishment is not permanent. There is only one sin that remains unforgivable, and that is shirk—putting other gods before or alongside Allah, or worshipping another. Furthermore, every individual is responsible for his own actions. A person cannot make up for another person’s sins, as Christians believe Jesus did for them.

Whereas some schools of Jewish and Christian thought teach that humankind is created in an image or likeness of God, Islam holds no such doctrine or mode of thinking. Allah is unfathomable, and certainly doesn’t hold a physical form that resembles a member of humanity. Allah is cloaked in mystery. He does not raise humanity to holiness by crafting humans in His image.

Allah wants the Muslim people to entrust themselves to His care and His plan. As a result, many Muslims train themselves to find contentment in daily life, believing that everything which occurs is of the will of Allah. While Allah runs the universe, there is also a strong belief that humans are responsible for the way they individually respond to Allah’s plan, and for the way they worship their God. The result of these beliefs is a delicate balance between predestination and human free will.

THE CONCEPT OF PRAYER

Submission and obedience are the only ways to please Allah. Yet the Muslim enjoys serving Allah, and this means that he enjoys obeying and praising Him through an extensive tradition of prayer. It is true that the Muslim recites certain prayers out of religious obligation. But it is also true that he does so with joyous intensity. Also, countless Muslims perform additional prayer practices out of a personal longing to communicate further with Allah.

Muslim prayer is built on the fundamental intention to obey and honor Allah. In addition, prayer holds elements of fear and reverence before Allah. But the Muslim trusts that Allah will be merciful and generous to those who come to Him with mindful, good intention. With these perspectives in mind, let’s further study Muslim prayer traditions.

Where Did the Prayer Traditions Begin?

The obligatory prayer traditions of Islam stem directly from the revelations given to Muhammad, and can be found in the Qur’an. Allah issued prayer instructions, and these changed over the years of revelation. For example, early in the Qur’an, Allah instructs His people to perform ritual prayer and accompanying prostrations three times per day. Later, this requirement increases to five times per day.

In addition to performing the prayers required by Allah, many Muslims have developed private prayer practices out of a desire to develop more individual relationships with Allah, to make personal entreaty, and to meditate upon Allah’s greatness. Many of the personal prayer traditions stem from Sufism, the mystical branch of Islam. Sufis believe in truly enjoying the presence of God, not in praying out of fear of hell, nor to gain entrance to Paradise. They concentrate on feeling or experiencing Allah’s presence.

While reveling in Allah’s presence, Sufism still maintains the primary notion of Allah as master. The difference is that emphasis falls on understanding Allah as a loving, tender master. In Sufi poetry, the speaker often approaches Allah as an infatuated lover would approach the object of his desires—with great adoration, passion, and longing. Very conservative Muslims do not support the concept that the human being can love God as he loves another person. They claim that the only way to truly love Allah in this world is to love His law and to serve Him willingly. But Sufi prayers are rich in emotion, and imply a perception of Allah as a benevolent lover of sorts.

How Important Is Prayer in the Muslim Tradition?

Prayer is so central to Muslim life that it is a religious obligation—a mandatory way to display submission and obedience to Allah. As mentioned previously, one of the fundamental principles—or “pillars”—of Islam is to perform a specific prayer service five times a day.

But prayer’s importance moves beyond the concept of obligation. Prayer helps the practitioner to purify himself, contributing to the forgiveness of his sins. It also strengthens his ability to carry out his obligations on earth. Prayer allows the Muslim a time and space to focus solely on Allah's transcendence, goodness, and mercy. In doing so, he gains confidence in Allah’s general plan and faces his daily life with less anxiety.

How Is Prayer Practiced?

Muslim prayer involves a variety of forms and techniques. There is certainly a strong fixed prayer tradition. Some fixed prayers are said under obligation, while others are chosen at a person’s own discretion—perhaps regularly, perhaps in a moment of joy or sorrow. In addition, personal requests might arise spontaneously and be spoken freely to Allah. Attentive reading and recitation of sacred texts is yet another practice of prayer in Islam.

The fixed, obligatory prayer repertoires are referred to as salat. As mentioned previously, they are traditionally conducted five times a day. These prayer rites involve not only reciting praise and thanks to Allah, but also expressing submission to Him through gestures and prostrations. Importantly, the salat prayers are always performed in Arabic. Allah transmitted the Qur’an to Muhammad in Arabic, so that language is considered especially sacred, and therefore appropriate for formal prayer.

Since Islam teaches that Allah is all-present—that He sees and knows every occurrence and thought—the observant Muslim makes efforts to remember His presence throughout the day. One way to call forth this mindfulness is to practice additional personal prayer, whether it takes the form of meditative sayings or petitions to Allah composed in the moment. Therefore, nonobligatory prayer is important for bringing the Muslim into constant mindfulness of Allah.

Personal nonobligatory fixed prayers of praise and thanksgiving fall under the title of dhikr. Dhikr involves repetition—aloud or mental—of certain phrases or words. Many of the traditional dhikr prayers are in Arabic, but it is not considered a transgression for the worshipper to recite personal prayers in his native tongue.

Prayers of personal request—called du‘a’, du‘a–, or da‘waa–—are also not included in the formal prayer rite. They are recited whenever an individual desires, in his own language. If the person who is praying feels moved to implore Allah with his own words, du‘a’ can be spontaneous and suited to the moment. Alternatively, the Muslim can turn to a variety of helpful collections.

A lot of the nonobligatory forms of prayer grew out of Sufi practices. As mentioned earlier, Sufism is the mystical movement of Islam that aims to go beyond ritual prayer and to develop a spirituality based more heavily on the experience of God’s presence. According to Jacques Jomier in How to Understand Islam, Sufism includes any prayer practice that exists outside the strict obligatory and formal prayers, covering such prayer activities as dhikr, du‘a’, the recitation of poems and other post-Muhammad teachings, and even political activism to some degree. Sufis are best known for their ecstatic dancing, and for the composition and recitation of passionate poetry.

As noted previously, praise and thanksgiving are also offered to Allah through the memorizing and reciting of sacred texts. This text-oriented form of worship allows the Muslim to both receive Allah’s words and thankfully return them to their source.

What Are the General Intentions of Prayer?

The greatest intention behind Muslim prayer is to demonstrate obedience to Allah. The Muslim heeds the instructions that Allah provided in the Qur’an when he performs salat five times per day. In addition, the various types of Muslim prayer address four other intentions toward Allah: praise, thanksgiving, confession, and petition. These objectives are identical to those of Jewish and Christian prayer.

Praise and thanksgiving are essential to Muslim worship. All prayer is recited with these intentions. And all prayer contributes to the forgiveness of a worshipper’s sins; it purifies him. So every form of prayer can be considered prayer for confession and atonement, as well.

Quite differently, petition is conducted only through personal prayer. Some Muslim groups discourage prayers of personal request—they believe in relying solely on Allah’s plan and care. But for those who practice prayers of supplication, how effective are they believed to be? Can such prayers change or sway Allah’s will?

Muslims ultimately believe that Allah follows no one’s design, and certainly is not bound by human prayers or actions. He has established a plan, and no person’s pleas will be powerful enough to change that plan. However, Allah does appoint human beings as caretakers of the earth and allows them certain decisions. For this, He has equipped them with free will. In addition, He wants the human being to earn Paradise by demonstrating obedience and submission. That, too, should be a result of the person’s free will. So Allah does leave certain choices up to the individual. Within this space, humans might request Allah’s guidance and mercy. That’s where the intention of personal request comes in. The worshipper asks Allah to actively manifest in his life, providing mercy and aid. Some Muslim theologians propose that the decisions that humans make have already been anticipated by Allah and are worked into the large scheme of things.

So, because Allah’s overarching plan has already been put into place and cannot be changed, Muslims do not suggest that they can alter Allah’s will through prayer. In fact, Muslims are often taught to be content with what they have, not to pray for more or for something different. If they do conduct prayers of personal request, the hope is not to sway Allah. The intention is to please Him—to display submission, reliance, and trust so that Allah will continue to permit certain beneficial occurrences to take place. In keeping with this attitude, prayer is first an act of loving obedience; then an act of praise and thankfulness; next a way of attaining pardon for sin; and last, petition. Such an approach avoids egocentrism and the offense of seeking to impose one’s will upon Allah.

Does Muslim Prayer Involve Saints and Angels?

Those who practice popular Islam, as opposed to orthodox Islam, tend to admire and meditate on the lives of especially holy and learned Muslims of the past. For example, a group may form around the memory and teachings of a certain inspiring figure. The person whom the group remembers and emulates is a saint to them. It is not uncommon for these admirers to pray to the saint for intercession on their behalf. They might visit the gravesite and even dedicate a shrine to that Muslim saint. Some might toss money at depictions of the saint at the tomb. In some locations, devout Muslims can even pay a shrine staff member to write a prayer of intercession to that saint. These practices are not rare or limited to small numbers of Muslims. For example, the Shi’ites—one of the largest and most recognized sects of Muslims—are known for their practice of venerating saints.

It shouldn’t come as any surprise, then, that many Muslims also pray to Muhammad, who is considered God’s beloved—habibullah. Countless Muslims view Muhammad as a high saint who can intercede for his people. Therefore, to gain both favor and blessings, they might repeat Muhammad’s name in an act of praise and petition. Great celebrations on Muhammad’s birth date are common, as well. There are even specific prayer techniques developed around devotion to Muhammad. Consider the techniques of naat and darud. According to editor Azim Nanji in The Muslim Almanac, naat is “the a cappela melodic recitation of devotional verse about the Prophet Muhammad in Arabic and vernacular languages.” The practice of darud involves performing fixed Arabic blessings to Muhammad in order to obtain certain benefits, such as a vision of him in a dream. It is believed that Muhammad personally hears his adorers’ prayers, as his spiritual presence is as active today as it was hundreds of years ago. Some Muslim folk groups even claim that Muhammad was divine.

Furthermore, members of Muhammad’s family and successors to his leadership are venerated as saints. This devotion is particularly important in Sufism. The Sufis refer to the spiritual descendents of Muhammad—his passed-on family members, his successors, and the greatest of the Sufi spiritualists—as awliya. In service to Allah, these spiritual presences are aware of all the goings-on of the people under their dominion, and report these events to Allah. Humans can pray to the awliya for intercession, and the awliya can directly affect humans’ lives.

While only popular Islam recognizes saints, all forms of Islam recognize invisible beings. After all, the Qur’an discusses angels, as well as another group of beings called jinns, or genies. The jinns are spirit-like and are gathered into communities. Some are Muslim and some are not. They can cause great problems among humans, or they can be completely benign. The bad ones are non-Muslim, and work against Muslim ideals.

Angel life has played an important role in Islam from its start. You may remember that the Angel Gabriel brought the revelations from Allah to Muhammad. It is also believed that each person has two guardian angels, and that these angels stand to his right and left, observing every action. Angels serve as Allah’s servants, carrying out Allah’s orders throughout heaven, earth, and hell. But importantly, Allah has ranked humans higher than angels; humans are at the top of the spiritual chain, under Allah. Therefore, guardian angels are not to be worshipped. Remaining in good community with them by wishing them peace at prayer time and by maintaining a life of good will is a constructive endeavor. But simply stated, since angels and jinns are less powerful than humans, venerating them would serve no purpose.

Satan figures into Islam as an angel who refused to bow to Adam—the first man—once he was created. Satan also was the force behind Adam’s sin of eating the fruit that Allah forbade him to ingest. Some Muslims consider Satan a bad angel, while others consider him a bad jinn. Either way, Satan and his allies are believed to actively work to defile humans. Those who live in obedience to Allah are under Allah’s kind protection, but must avoid falling to the corruption of bad forces.

PRAYER TECHNIQUES

It is important to mention that some orthodox Muslim groups take issue with performing prayer practices outside of the prescribed rites. This is taken so seriously in some regions, that prayer outside of the daily rites is illegal. But many Muslims, including the majority of American Muslims, see additional prayer practices as a confirmation of their continual allegiance and submission to Allah.

Both obligatory and nonobligatory prayer practices are covered in this section on prayer techniques, as are spiritual readings. In addition, we will first look at a traditional method of preparing for prayer. However, it should be noted that the following discussion is by no means designed to recommend a change in the set prayer life of any Muslim individual who has decided to strictly observe the salat only.

Preparing for Prayer

Muslims must observe a specific way of preparing for prayer—or, at least, of preparing for the five obligatory daily prayers referred to as the salat prayer. Traditional Muslims follow a rather extensive protocol that prepares them for prayer. These rituals are intended to cleanse the Muslim for communication with Allah, and to encourage a focused, reverent state of mind.

First, the Muslim conducts ablution, or cleansing, in order to come to Allah in a purified state. It is felt that the cleansing of the body is an outward sign of the intention to cleanse oneself of internal impurities. In addition, by coming before Allah with a clean body, the worshipper shows respect to his God.

Cleansing rituals vary widely among Muslim groups. In general, though, it is believed that minor sins or wrongs can be washed away with a quick, rather easy ablution or bath, called wudu. A simple rinse with water on the feet, forearms, hands, head, face, mouth, nose, and so on, can be accomplished without removing too much clothing or taking too much time. Larger sins, such as those having to do with sexuality, require a full body wash, called ghusl.

Next, the Muslim must select an appropriate place to pray. He may, of course, pray in a mosque—a house of Muslim worship. However this is optional, except for the Friday afternoon service, which men are required to attend. Although the environment of the mosque is conducive to uninterrupted, focused prayer, it is not believed that the mosque holds an enhanced presence of Allah. If the Muslim cannot or does not pray at a mosque, he must select clean ground space for his prayer rite. In addition, shoes should be removed before entering the selected space, unless the shoes are very clean.

It is common for Muslims to use a personal prayer carpet. These carpets are small and easy to carry; spread out, they are only a few feet long. The carpets come in handy because it can be difficult to find a clean space during work, a social function, and the like. Thus, the carpet allows the Muslim the opportunity to establish an appropriate prayer space at virtually any location.

Next, the Muslim must turn and face the direction in which the city of Mecca lies or, if in the city of Mecca, must face the Ka’ba, the ancient temple. Once the Muslim orients himself accordingly, he forms his “intention”—that is, he mentally recalls what he is about to do before Allah, and why he is doing it. Once all of these steps have been accomplished, the Muslim can begin his prayer rite.

Obligatory Prayer

The prayers discussed in this section are said prior to or during the obligatory prayer rite known as salat, but also during many individuals’ personally designed private worship practices. When it is time for a salat rite to be performed, a “call to prayer” is issued from a highpoint at the local mosque, or, in predominantly Muslim countries, over the radio. That’s when certain fixed prayers start to be recited. The rite continues with a number of traditions that are carried out with precision and heartfelt devotion.

Allahu Akbar

Allahu akbar is translated as “God is greater.” Another translation is, “God alone is great, the greatest.” This one-line prayer is used at every call to prayer. But Allahu akbar is also repeated during salat, and is said repeatedly in private prayer and during group gatherings. It is an essential prayer of the Muslim’s life.

Unfortunately, the Allahu akbar has become associated with battle, as some Muslims use it while entering into combat. But its original, beautiful intention was to declare the supremacy of God over all other things, and possibly also to declare that other gods and demons—meaning pagan spirits that were formerly worshipped or feared—are by no means on the same level as Allah.

The Shahada

The Shahada is the basic creed, also called the confession, of the Muslim. It sums up the foundational beliefs of Islam: “La Ilaha illa Allah, Muhammad rasul Allah,” translated as “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His Prophet.” Under Islam, there are no sacraments necessary to obtain God’s grace. There is no baptism into the faith. The sole requirement is that two witnesses observe the recitation of the Shahada. Then the person who recited this creed is considered to be in Allah’s service. While the Shahada is a formal profession of faith, it is also a common daily prayer. Muslims say it both during prayer rituals and during their personal prayer practices.

Salat

Salat traditionally refers to the five daily prayer sessions that are obligatory for Muslims, and carried out every day of the week. The prayers of salat call out to Allah and praise his transcendence. According to Muslim belief, the performance of salat can also counteract the prayer practitioner’s weaknesses and bad actions, purifying him and reinforcing his spiritual strength. Salat is so central to Muslim worship that the prayers and accompanying gestures are the first elements of Islam that the Muslim child learns. The gestures are critical because by physically demonstrating submission to Allah, the mental or spiritual submission is reinforced and enhanced.

The prayer practitioner must meet certain requirements to be permitted to perform salat. He must be Muslim; he must be clean in mind, body, and clothing; he must say the prayers in a pure place; he must appropriately cover the body (for women, this means that only the face, hands, and feet can be visible); and he must pray with his face in the direction of Mecca or, if in Mecca, the Ka’ba—the ancient temple that is now the seat of Muslim worship.

As previously mentioned, there are five set times to perform the ritual prayers, and each session consists of elements—rakats—that are repeated two, three, or four times. The first ritual of the day is al-fajr, which is recited at dawn. Its elements are repeated two times. The second service, called al-zuhr, is said at noon. Its elements are repeated four times. Next is the afternoon prayer, al-ásr, which is performed in the middle of the afternoon. Its elements are repeated four times as well. Then comes the evening prayer, al-maghrib, said immediately after the sun sets, with elements repeated three times. Finally, a night prayer, or al-‘isha, is recited at approximately ninety minutes after sunset. The elements of this prayer service are repeated four times. There is some variation among traditions.

The time for salat is signified by a call to prayer, as mentioned earlier. Whether broadcast over loudspeakers or the radio, the call can be either a live chant or a recording, and is always spoken in Arabic. The words are fixed. In response, the worshipper begins salat by facing Mecca and repeating his own personal call to prayer. Next, the Muslim states his intention in prayer. For this, he stands with raised and open hands. Palms should be turned forward and held at ear level, with the thumbs placed behind the earlobes. An example of stating intention would be to say, “I intend to offer ____ rakats of the ____ prayer, and face the Ka’ba for the sake of Allah and Allah alone.” The first blank would be filled in with the number of elements required during the particular prayer session, and the second would be filled in with the name of that session: al-fajr, al-zuhr, al-ásr, al-maghrib, or al-‘isha.

The worshipper may then recite the Allahu akbar. According to Jacques Jomier in How to Understand Islam, when recited in salat rituals, it is referred to as the Allahu akbar of sacralization, because it brings the person into a holy mindset. Once all of this is completed, the worshipper brings his hands to his sides or crosses (folds) his arms, and salat prayer formally begins.

Standing, the worshipper recites the first chapter of the Qur’an, titled the Fatiha. Afterwards, many Muslims follow a practice during which, still standing, they recite a few passages of their own choice from the Qur’an. This occurs at least during the first and second rakats. Sometimes, but not often, a Muslim group recommends fixed verses during this part of the ritual.

A Muslim next performs a full bow, bending from the waist, with palms on the knees. He may recite the Allahu akbar again during the bow. Upon straightening, some sources translate that the person declares, “Lord, to You be the praise.” Others explain that the Muslim says, “God has mercy on those who praise him,” or a variety of other similar phrases. Additional bows and declarations of Allahu akbar are common at this point.

After the bows, a formal prostration is performed, but not before declaring “Al-hamdu lillah” once. Translated as “Praise be to God,” this is a phrase of thanks to Allah. Then the traditional Muslim gets down on his knees and, with his hands palm-down below his shoulders, places his forehead on the ground, saying a prayer—in Arabic—such as, “Glory to my Lord, the Most High. God is great.” Another example of a prostration phrase is, “Glorify the name of God most high.” Next, the person sits back on his heels and, maintaining a kneeling position, says Allahu akbar. Once again, the head is placed to the ground and the prostration is repeated, along with the accompanying phrase. There is a return to kneeling, and another Allahu akbar. Then the Muslim returns to standing position. The whole process is repeated for a designated number of times, starting again at the Fatiha. Some traditions hold that before concluding each set, the head is turned to the left and right.

After the second and the last rakat, the worshipper recites the Tashahud. These ritual words are meant to call forth God’s help. At the conclusion, while still on his knees and sitting back on his heels, the worshipper recites the Salawat. He then greets any other prayer practitioners to the right and left, wishing peace upon them: “As-salamu alaykum wa rahmatu-Llah,” or “Peace be with you and God’s mercy.” This is called the taslim. At a mosque, handshakes are also exchanged as a sign of brotherhood. If the worshipper is not at a mosque service, but rather is praying privately, he will greet his two guardian angels. Ultimately, the salat involves praise, thanksgiving, proclamation of Allah’s lordship, remembrance that there will be a day of judgment, and requests for Allah’s guidance. The whole sequence often takes five to ten minutes.

Friday afternoon salat services, which are obligatory for men, include not only the usual salat prayer rituals, but also a lengthy reading from the Qur’an and a sermon. At each service throughout the week, an imam, or prayer leader, heads the communal prayer. An imam is not a member of the clergy. Rather, he is a person who is very well studied in the Qur’an. Any such man can serve an imam at a mosque service.

It is important to note that Muslim law does not allow a Muslim to perform a salat ritual before its designated time. However, the prayer ritual can be performed late if there is good reason for the delay. Men and women share the same prayer obligations, except that only men must attend the Friday service. In addition, there are certain times when women are exempt from their prayer responsibilities, such as during menstruation.

Nonobligatory Prayer

After an obligatory prayer ritual, many Muslims perform further prayers. In addition, many Muslims carry out personally designed prayer sessions—be they regular or spontaneous—over the course of the day. These personal prayers may be repeated phrases endeavoring to praise Allah, or may be prayers of petition.

Dhikr

When not engaged in obligatory prayer, a Muslim may choose an effective phrase or prayer litany and recite it repeatedly to enhance his mindfulness of Allah. In fact, many Muslim brotherhoods—or social/prayer groups—prescribe litanies of prayers to be said on prayer beads to create constant awareness of Allah’s presence. This meditative chanting of fixed phrases is commonly known as dhikr. The Arabic root of the word dhikr refers to remembrance and mindfulness.

The prayer-bead loop used to count dhikr contains ninety-nine beads, which coincide with the Ninety-Nine Holy Names of Allah. So a Muslim may meditate upon the various characteristics of Allah by chanting each one of His ninety-nine names—one for each bead. One tradition quotes Muhammad as saying that anyone who repeats all of Allah’s names by memory will be sure to gain entrance to Paradise in the afterlife. According to Braswell’s Islam: Its Prophet, Peoples, Politics, and Power, these names yield “power and God consciousness” to the worshipper. Braswell reports that the characteristics highlighted by the holy names include majesty, generosity, beauty, essence, action, power, wisdom, fear-provoking, and goodness.

Another dhikr technique is to repeat three fixed phrases, saying each one thirty-three times, so as to complete count on the prayer-bead string. In English translation, the three phrases are: “Praise be to God! Every thanks is due to God! God is greater!” After these meditations, a person’s own requests can be made.

Dhikr is traditionally performed in group, but the technique can be extended to personal prayer devotions. Also, the repetitive recitations can be accompanied by breathing techniques and designated movements. Dhikr might be done in any position—standing, sitting, dancing—according to a worshipper’s traditions. The result is that the person who prays in this manner actually puts himself in a type of trance, removing himself from distractions and forming a highly focused state of awareness.

The Sufis perform great dances during their dhikr. Those who follow the practices of Jalal ad-Din ar-Rumi, a great Sufi master and poet, throw off their black cloaks in order to symbolize the shedding of burden and darkness. They then whirl around in white garments to symbolize life in Paradise. They may turn about individually, or form a ring and dance in an open circle, as though revolving around Allah. This type of mystic practice is gaining in popularity in Western culture.

Du‘a’

Du‘a’ has come to signify the personal, extraliturgical prayers that a Muslim performs outside of salat obligations. This type of prayer is also referred to as prayer of supplication or petition. Dhikr, discussed above, can be considered a type of du‘a’, or personal prayer practice. Du’a’ and dhikr are not truly distinct from each other. A possible way of distinguishing the two is to consider dhikr as simple, focused praise and mindfulness of Allah, whereas du‘a’ involves personal request. Prayers of intercession—that is, prayers said on behalf of another person—are included in du‘a’, and are called sdla– li’ajli in Arabic.

Whereas the fixed prayer rituals are to be recited in Arabic, du‘a’ can be spoken in each Muslim’s native language. This form of Muslim prayer can be spontaneous and informal—more along the lines of a conversation with Allah. But while the nature of du‘a’ is the individual’s articulation of needs, we all know that sometimes words don’t come fluently in prayer. For such situations, the Muslim can refer to texts that print du‘a’ prayers of an admired saint, poet, or spiritualist. An example of such a text is The Complete Book of the One Who Constantly Prostrates Himself in Prayer, translated from the Arabic, As-Sahifat al-kamilat as-sajjadiyya. This book contains the prayer collection of Zayn al-’Abidin, a famous Shi’ite prayer leader, or imam, who lived during the seventh to eighth centuries.

Spiritual Reading

Certain texts are given great significance in the practice of Islam. Among these is, first and foremost, the Qur’an, which Muslims believe to contain the actual words of Allah. Second to the Qur’an in textual importance is the Hadith. When discussed in full, the Hadith is a multi-volume collection of stories, legends, and lessons about Muhammad’s life. Reading from the Qur’an and the Hadith, and meditating or dwelling upon the messages found therein, is considered prayerful activity. These two sources of Muslim tradition are further discussed below.

The Qur’an

Islam considers its sacred book, the Qur’an—also commonly spelled Quran and Koran—so holy that someone in ritual impurity should not touch it, nor should anything be placed on top of it. The passages are literally taken as the word of Allah, articulated through the Angel Gabriel to Muhammad, and thus sent out to the people. Qur’an is actually an Arabic word that means “reading” or “recitation.” Reading and reciting the passages of the Qur’an signifies the accepting of, and then the thankful returning of, Allah’s words. Certain verses can call forth blessings and protection.

The Qur’an was revealed to Muhammad over a period of twenty-two years—from 610 to 632 ce, the last year being that of Muhammad’s death. It was fully compiled about twenty years after the Prophet’s death. The text explains that life on earth is a time to prove oneself; it is a temporary exam that will assess whether or not a person is worthy of an enjoyable afterlife. Therefore, upon death in this world, each person will experience either reward or punishment. The Qur’an supports a definite belief in life after death, in a final judgment day, in resurrection, and in every person’s responsibility for his own actions. It addresses the problem of human weakness by constantly reminding the human consciousness of its necessary submission to Allah. All laws for Muslim living can be found in its pages.

The Qur’an is made up of chapters, each chapter being a surah. There are times when the Qur’an seems to correct itself, or further develop. According to the revelation, this isn’t because Allah’s words are sometimes wrongly communicated, but because Allah knows that the human being cannot handle all of the truth at one time. The entire concept of Islam unfolds over the course of the book. It has been said that some of Muhammad’s earliest followers were drawn to Islam by the strikingly beautiful, poetic verses of the Qur’an.

The Hadith

There are thousands of hadiths—stories about Muhammad, his words, his actions, and the events of his life. At one point, these stories were oral tales passed down through the generations. Each story is attributed to an eyewitness to Muhammad. The whole collection of these stories is formally called the Hadith, and makes up fifty or sixty large volumes. The hadiths discuss a large variety of topics, from Muslim obligations, to Allah’s generosity, even to the devil. Because of the traceable authenticity of the hadiths, they are considered second only to the Qur’an in importance.

One body of these stories is known as the Prophetic Hadith. These tales are specifically attributed to Muhammad himself. It is not uncommon for Muslim communities to claim that the Prophetic Hadith is inspired by Allah but is in the Prophet’s own words, rather than direct reiteration of Allah’s message. Then there is the Sacred Hadith, which is considered by some to be directly communicated to humanity by Allah. These are rather emotional tracts, expressing God’s intense love for humanity and His presence in all things. Because of the emotional content, many conservative Muslims find these passages offensive. They believe such hadiths diminish the transcendence of Allah. However, the beauty and sweetness of these hadiths have made them valued texts among those who allow themselves an emotional perspective. Reading such passages on the love and benevolence of Allah reinforces the prayer lives of such Muslims.

ENHANCING THE PRACTICE OF PRAYER

Muslim prayers are always performed with the notions of submission and obedience in mind. Yet they are also enjoyable experiences, allowing Allah’s servants to bask in His presence and focus their attention on their God. Even if the prayer practitioner no longer observes all of the strict obligations required of orthodox Islam, he can choose a number of traditional ways to enhance his spiritual practices, making his prayer time more effective. This can involve keeping certain attitudes in mind, and using helpful prayer postures and aids.

Adopting the Right State of Mind

By adopting the proper attitude when approaching prayer, the practitioner can increase his mindfulness of Allah, as well as the joy he experiences by acting in service to Allah. The following approaches have proven effective for many Muslims, and may also be helpful for any prayer practitioner, regardless of his religion, who wishes to enjoy all the benefits that prayer has to offer.

Form Niyyat

In Arabic, niyyat or niyah refers to right intention. The Muslim is supposed to form niyyat in his mind before reciting prayer. During this gathering of intention, he reminds himself that his prayers are said solely to Allah. He then declares the number of prayer elements he will perform, and which specific service he will conduct.

For an act of prayer, or any act, to be beneficial, the right intention must be behind it. Each prayer service—obligatory or optional—should be performed willingly and decisively, not simply by rote. Niyyat puts the person in a reverent and clarified state of mind, locking out distractions and organizing thoughts around service to God.

Have Gratitude

A non-Muslim might wrongly assume that Muslims pray largely out of fear and submission. But the truth is that the Muslim delights in his God. Gratitude, not fear, is very likely the fuel that drives worshippers. Expressing thankfulness to Allah in prayer makes a person more aware of the everyday gifts from Allah—of how precious the world around us is—bringing a happiness and sincerity to prayer. That is why salat, the daily prayer rite, includes thanksgiving.

Emphasize Obedience

Islam teaches that every prayer should be said with the intention to obey Allah. This is comparable to the “Thy will be done” approach found in Judaism and Christianity. Muslims continually focus on their obedience to Allah, and also the joy that they experience in obeying their God. They trust that if they remain obedient to His commands and practice devout praise and thanksgiving, Allah will be merciful and generous to them. This emphasis on obedience helps put the prayer practitioner in a good state of mind by diminishing the egocentrism, or self-centeredness, that is so prevalent in human life.

Prayer Postures and Gestures

To enhance the experience of prayer and also to further display submission to Allah, the Muslim practices certain postures and gestures. It is evident that the body is very much considered a tool of worship in Islam. Prayer postures and gestures prevent prayer from lodging solely in the mind; the dynamism of prayer is further manifested through the body.

The prayer prostrations that became obligatory for the Muslim were not meant to degrade humanity. In Islam: A Short History, author Karen Armstrong explains, “The prostrations were designed to counter the hard arrogance and self-sufficiency that was growing apace in Mecca. The postures of their bodies would re-educate the Muslims, teaching them to lay aside their pride and selfishness, and recall that before God they were nothing.” Therefore, Muslim prayer is rooted in the desire to wipe away egocentric attitudes and to become mindful of the true center, Allah.

The term rakat, also written as rak’a or rakah, refers to the entire repertoire of prayer gestures and words that are repeated during Muslim prayer. Qiyam is “the standing,” during which the worshipper faces Mecca, recalls Allah’s supremacy, and turns to Allah for protection from evil. Ruku– is the term, translated as “kneeling,” for the kneeling/bowing gestures. Sujud, or sajda, is a prostration. These postures performed before Allah are acts of adoration and service. They outwardly express the submission that is taking place on a spiritual level.

Hand gestures are also a part of Muslim prayer. The du‘a’ are often performed with open hands turned so that palms face upwards. Some prayer practitioners cup the hands, as well, to symbolize that the Muslim is set to receive the blessings which Allah will send in response to his prayers. It is also traditional to wipe the hands over the face once prayers are completed to spread the received blessings onto the body.

Prayer Accessories

As in other religious systems, certain Muslim prayer aids can contribute to the practice of prayer. Not all Muslims use the accessories discussed below, but many find that one or more of these aids can make the experience of prayer even more significant.

Prayer Beads

The Muslim prayer beads, contain ninety-nine beads in a loop. This prayer aid is used to keep track of the worshipper’s declarations of the Ninety-Nine Holy Names of Allah, and/or to keep count of phrase repetitions of any sort.

Prayer Carpets

As mentioned earlier in the chapter, many Muslims who perform the salat carry a prayer carpet with them throughout the day. This carpet, upon which prostration is performed, is called a sajjada. It can be used in the mosque, on the street, on the grass—anywhere. Often, a sajjada contains inscriptions of Qur’an passages to enhance the prayer practitioner’s awareness of Allah. Some carpets are highly decorative, displaying intricate symbolic artwork.

Artistic Writing

Visual triggers for prayer, through artwork, are also a part of Muslim prayer life. This artwork can be found on buildings, books, prayer carpets, and many other articles that Muslims see and use both in prayer and in other daily activities.

Epigraphy is the inscription of sacred writing on mosques, buildings, tombs, and even smaller articles like prayer carpets and lamps. The complex inscriptions, usually spelling out Qur’an passages, are sometimes so highly artistic that they become coded, capable of being read only by a very trained eye. The selected texts often address the largest of issues—death, judgment, resurrection, and Allah’s mercy through forgiveness. The Shahada, is a popular phrase for epigraphy, as well. These inscriptions are meant to trigger mindfulness of Allah, and also to provide the worshipper with beauty. Therefore, for example, when a Muslim simply glances down at the prayer carpet as he is about to kneel, he will see the epigraphy on that carpet and be further reminded of the purpose and beauty of his prayers.

Calligraphy is very popular in the Muslim culture; beautiful types of lettering have been designed throughout the history of Islam. Calligraphy is used in epigraphy, yet in a stricter sense, calligraphy refers to artistic writing done by hand, with pen or paints. It is considered one of the highest prayerful activities to write out passages from the Qur’an or the hadiths in calligraphy.

Finally, a technique referred to as illumination is often used to embellish works of epigraphy and calligraphy. This art entails carving or penning geometric and floral designs around the sacred passages to enhance visual appearance. The artwork created through epigraphy, calligraphy, and illumination affects the prayer lives of worshippers by bringing the presence of visual beauty and artistic adoration of Allah into their prayers.

Wazifa

In some Muslim communities, individuals sometimes turn to an imam—a community spiritual leader—or an inspirational spiritualist to guide them on their personal prayer journeys. A spiritual guide can organize a daily prayer ritual specifically around a person’s needs and wishes. Designed to be performed during prayer practice outside of salat, such a ritual is referred to as wazifa or ratib. A fixed prayer plan, it eventually becomes a natural routine.

CONCLUSION
Above all, the Muslim performs prayer out of the desire to submit to and please Allah. The obligations of salat are met with joy of service, and additional personal prayers are recited with zeal to further communicate with Allah. Clearly, Muslim prayer life is rich with numerous traditions. Islam appreciates the aural and oral aspects of prayer—listening to Allah’s word, and reciting that word back to Allah, along with other prayers. Gestures and postures are also a significant part of Muslim worship, making prayer a total effort, not just one of the mind. And prayer can even be found in sacred text and artistic writing. Religion permeates every part of the Muslim’s life—political, economic, and social. And a highly developed practice of prayer is essential to the Muslim religion.




Copyright © 2001 by Helene Ciaravino

From How to Pray by Helene Ciaravino (Garden City Park, New York: Square One Publishers)